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Computing

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the activity involving computing machinery. For the magazines, see <a href="Computing_(magazine)" title="Computing (magazine)">Computing (magazine)</a> and <a href="Compute!" title="Compute!">Compute!</a></div>

Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computing machinery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a> It includes the study and experimentation of <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmic</a> processes, and the development of both <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include <a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="Cybersecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybersecurity">cybersecurity</a>, <a href="Data_science" title="Data science">data science</a>, <a href="Information_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems">information systems</a>, <a href="Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, and <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

The term computing is also <a href="Synonymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonymous">synonymous</a> with <a href="Counting" title="Counting">counting</a> and <a href="Calculation" title="Calculation">calculating</a>. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by <a href="Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computing machines</a>, and before that, to <a href="Computer_(occupation)" title="Computer (occupation)">human computers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a>.</div>

The history of computing is longer than the <a href="History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">history of computing hardware</a> and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before <a href="Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">numeral systems</a>. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the <a href="Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>, and it is thought to have been invented in <a href="Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> circa between 2700 and 2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.

The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by <a href="C._E._Wynn-Williams" title="C. E. Wynn-Williams">C. E. Wynn-Williams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>'s 1938 paper "<a href="A_Symbolic_Analysis_of_Relay_and_Switching_Circuits" title="A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits">A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits</a>" then introduced the idea of using electronics for <a href="Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebraic</a> operations.

The concept of a <a href="Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a> was proposed by <a href="Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> in 1925. <a href="John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="Walter_Brattain" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a>, while working under <a href="William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at <a href="Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, built the first working <a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, the <a href="Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>, in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-Lee-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Puers-6">[6]</a> In 1953, the <a href="University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> built the first <a href="Transistorized_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistorized computer">transistorized computer</a>, the <a href="Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> However, early <a href="Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">junction transistors</a> were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.<a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-8">[8]</a>

In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> at Bell Labs 1960.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The MOSFET made it possible to build <a href="Very_large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very large-scale integration">high-density integrated circuits</a>,<a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hittinger-13">[13]</a> leading to what is known as the <a href="Computer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer revolution">computer revolution</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> or <a href="Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">microcomputer revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer">Computer</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a>, <a href="Outline_of_computers" title="Outline of computers">Outline of computers</a>, and <a href="Glossary_of_computer_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of computer terms">Glossary of computer terms</a></div>

A computer is a machine that manipulates <a href="Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a> according to a set of instructions called a <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine instructions</a> according to the <a href="Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> type.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

The execution <a href="Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a> carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the <a href="Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">semantics</a> of the instructions.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_hardware">Computer hardware</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Computer hardware</a></div>

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the <a href="Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a>, <a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>, and <a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">input/output</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="Computational_logic" title="Computational logic">Computational logic</a> and <a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a> are key topics in the field of computer hardware.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_software">Computer software</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">Computer software</a></div>

Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, as well as its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the <a href="Function_(engineering)" title="Function (engineering)">function</a> of the <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> it implements, either by directly providing <a href="Instruction_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction (computer science)">instructions</a> to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The <a href="Terminology" title="Terminology">term</a> was coined to contrast with the old term <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="System_software">System software</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="System_software" title="System software">System software</a></div>

System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, <a href="Utility_software" title="Utility software">utility software</a>, <a href="Device_driver" title="Device driver">device drivers</a>, <a href="Window_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Window system">window systems</a>, and <a href="Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a>. Frequently used development tools such as <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compilers</a>, <a href="Linker_(computing)" title="Linker (computing)">linkers</a>, and <a href="Debugging" title="Debugging">debuggers</a> are classified as system software.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="System_software" title="System software">System software</a> and <a href="Middleware" title="Middleware">middleware</a> manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Application_software">Application software</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Application_software" title="Application software">Application software</a></div>

Application software, also known as an application or an app, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include <a href="Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">enterprise software</a>, <a href="Accounting_software" title="Accounting software">accounting software</a>, <a href="Office_suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Office suite">office suites</a>, <a href="Graphics_software" title="Graphics software">graphics software</a>, and <a href="Media_player_(application_software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Media player (application software)">media players</a>. Many application programs deal principally with <a href="Document_file_format" title="Document file format">documents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Apps may be <a href="Product_bundling" title="Product bundling">bundled</a> with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user.

Application software applies the power of a particular <a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">computing platform</a> or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as <a href="Microsoft_Office" title="Microsoft Office">Microsoft Office</a>, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a <a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geography</a> application for <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> or an <a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a> application for <a href="Educational_software" title="Educational software">education</a> or <a href="Linux_gaming" class="mw-redirect" title="Linux gaming">Linux gaming</a>. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as <a href="Killer_application" title="Killer application">killer applications</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_network">Computer network</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></div>

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">interconnected</a> by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, <a href="Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">communications protocol</a> used, scale, <a href="Network_topology" title="Network topology">topology</a>, and organizational scope.

<a href="Communications_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Communications protocol">Communications protocols</a> define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for <a href="Computer_network_programming" title="Computer network programming">network programming</a>. One well-known communications protocol is <a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, a hardware and <a href="Link_layer" title="Link layer">link layer</a> standard that is ubiquitous in <a href="Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a>. Another common protocol is the <a href="Internet_Protocol_Suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol Suite">Internet Protocol Suite</a>, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for <a href="Data_communication" title="Data communication">data communication</a> between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of <a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, telecommunications, <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, information technology, or <a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">computer engineering</a>, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internet">Internet</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></div>

The Internet is a global system of interconnected <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> that use the standard <a href="Internet_Protocol_Suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Protocol Suite">Internet Protocol Suite</a> (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked <a href="Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a> documents of the <a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> and the <a href="Information_infrastructure" title="Information infrastructure">infrastructure</a> to support email.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica_Internet-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_programming">Computer programming</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a> and <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div>

Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a>, which is an <a href="Artificial_language" title="Artificial language">artificial language</a> that is often more restrictive than <a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a>, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> However, the term programmer may apply to a range of program quality, from <a href="Hacker_(hobbyist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (hobbyist)">hacker</a> to <a href="Hacker_(programmer_subculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (programmer subculture)">open source contributor</a> to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the <a href="Proof_of_concept" title="Proof of concept">proof of concept</a> to launch a new <a href="Killer_application" title="Killer application">killer application</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computer_programmer">Computer programmer</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">Programmer</a>, <a href="Software_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software engineer">Software engineer</a>, and <a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Software developer</a></div>

A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of <a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a> or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> A programmer's primary computer language (<a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with Web. The term programmer can be used to refer to a <a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">software developer</a>, software engineer, <a href="Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a>, or <a href="Software_analyst" title="Software analyst">software analyst</a>. However, members of these <a href="Profession" title="Profession">professions</a> typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_industry">Computer industry</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer_Industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Industry">Computer Industry</a> and <a href="Software_industry" title="Software industry">Software industry</a></div>

The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and <a href="Computer_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer networking">computer networking</a> infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including <a href="System_administrator" title="System administrator">system administration</a> and maintenance.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

The software industry includes businesses engaged in <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">development</a>, <a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">maintenance</a>, and <a href="Software_publisher" title="Software publisher">publication</a> of software. The industry also includes software <a href="Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a>, such as <a href="Training" title="Training">training</a>, <a href="Software_documentation" title="Software documentation">documentation</a>, and consulting.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sub-disciplines_of_computing">Sub-disciplines of computing</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_engineering">Computer engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></div>

Computer engineering is a <a href="Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">discipline</a> that integrates several fields of <a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> and <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> required to develop computer hardware and software.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Computer engineers usually have training in <a href="Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">electronic engineering</a> (or <a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>), <a href="Software_design" title="Software design">software design</a>, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual <a href="Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, personal computers, and <a href="Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a>, to <a href="Circuit_design" title="Circuit design">circuit design</a>. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Software_engineering">Software engineering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></div>

Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software.<a href="#cite_note-BoDu04-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 <a href="NATO_Software_Engineering_Conferences" title="NATO Software Engineering Conferences">NATO Software Engineering Conference</a>, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived <a href="Software_crisis" title="Software crisis">software crisis</a> at the time.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a>, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the <a href="Software_Engineering_Body_of_Knowledge" title="Software Engineering Body of Knowledge">Software Engineering Body of Knowledge</a> (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_science">Computer science</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> and <a href="Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">Computer scientist</a></div>

Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the <a href="Science" title="Science">scientific</a> and practical approach to <a href="Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> and its applications. A <a href="Computer_scientist" title="Computer scientist">computer scientist</a> specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in <a href="Computer_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer system">computer systems</a>, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as <a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computational complexity theory</a>, which studies fundamental properties of <a href="Computational_problem" title="Computational problem">computational problems</a>, are highly abstract, while others, such as <a href="Computer_graphics_(computer_science)" title="Computer graphics (computer science)">computer graphics</a>, emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, <a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">programming language theory</a> studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of <a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">computer programming</a> investigates the use of <a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a> and <a href="Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a>. The field of <a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">human–computer interaction</a> focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cybersecurity">Cybersecurity</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></div>The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes <a href="Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">information and data privacy</a>, preventing <a href="Denial-of-service_attack" title="Denial-of-service attack">disruption</a> of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_science">Data science</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Data_science" title="Data science">Data science</a></div>

Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a>, <a href="Big_data" title="Big data">big data</a>, statistics, <a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> and <a href="Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> are all interwoven with data science.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_systems">Information systems</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information system</a></div>

Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute <a href="Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The <a href="Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>'s Computing Careers describes IS as:

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"A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required."<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>

</blockquote>

The study of IS bridges business and <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, using the theoretical foundations of information and <a href="Computation" title="Computation">computation</a> to study various business models and related <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithmic</a> processes within a computer science discipline.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> while IS emphasizes functionality over design.<a href="#cite_note-Freeman_Hart_2004-59">[59]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_technology">Information technology</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></div>

Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and <a href="Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">telecommunications equipment</a> to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data,<a href="#cite_note-DOP-60">[60]</a> often in the context of a business or other enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several <a href="Computer_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer industry">industries</a> are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, <a href="Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, <a href="Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>, internet, <a href="Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">telecom equipment</a>, <a href="E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a>, and <a href="Computer_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer services">computer services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DMC-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ralston2000-63">[63]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_and_emerging_technologies">Research and emerging technologies</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science" title="List of unsolved problems in computer science">List of unsolved problems in computer science</a></div>

<a href="DNA_computing" title="DNA computing">DNA-based computing</a> and <a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">quantum computing</a> are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of <a href="Quantum_algorithm" title="Quantum algorithm">quantum algorithms</a>. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes <a href="DNA_origami" title="DNA origami">DNA origami</a> on photolithography<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> and quantum antennae for transferring information between ion traps.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> By 2011, researchers had <a href="Qubit#Quantum_entanglement" title="Qubit">entangled</a> 14 <a href="Qubit" title="Qubit">qubits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Fast <a href="Digital_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital circuit">digital circuits</a>, including those based on <a href="Josephson_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Josephson junction">Josephson junctions</a> and <a href="Rapid_single_flux_quantum" title="Rapid single flux quantum">rapid single flux quantum</a> technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of <a href="Nanoscale_superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoscale superconductor">nanoscale superconductors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a>

Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> IBM has created an <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a>

Another field of research is <a href="Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</a>. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine <a href="Photonics" title="Photonics">photonics</a> and spintronics.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> There is also research ongoing on combining <a href="Plasmonics" title="Plasmonics">plasmonics</a>, photonics, and electronics.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cloud_computing">Cloud computing</h3></div>

Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of <a href="Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">Software as a Service</a>, <a href="Platform_as_a_service" title="Platform as a service">Platforms as a Service</a>, and <a href="Infrastructure_as_a_service" title="Infrastructure as a service">Infrastructure as a Service</a>, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> It allows individual users or small business to benefit from <a href="Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>.

One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantum_computing">Quantum computing</h3></div>

<a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a> is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses <a href="Qubit" title="Qubit">qubits</a>. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as <a href="Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">quantum entanglement</a>, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in <a href="Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">molecular modeling</a>. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_thinking" title="Computational thinking">Computational thinking</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_algebra" title="Computer algebra">Computer algebra</a></li>

<li><a href="Confidential_computing" title="Confidential computing">Confidential computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_computing" title="Creative computing">Creative computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-centric_computing" title="Data-centric computing">Data-centric computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_data_processing" title="Electronic data processing">Electronic data processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Enthusiast_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Enthusiast computing">Enthusiast computing</a></li>

<li>Index of history of computing articles</li>

<li><a href="Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">Instruction set architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of things</a></li>

<li><a href="Lehmer_sieve" title="Lehmer sieve">Lehmer sieve</a></li>

<li><a href="Liquid_computing" title="Liquid computing">Liquid computing</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_computer_term_etymologies" title="List of computer term etymologies">List of computer term etymologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_computers" title="Outline of computers">Outline of computers</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_computing" title="Outline of computing">Outline of computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific computing">Scientific computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_computing" title="Spatial computing">Spatial computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Unconventional_computing" title="Unconventional computing">Unconventional computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_computing" title="Urban computing">Urban computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Freeman_Hart_2004-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Freeman_Hart_2004_59-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFreemanHart2004" class="citation journal cs1">Freeman, Peter; Hart, David (August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1012037.1012054">"A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems"</a>. Communications of the ACM. 47 (8): 19–21. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1012037.1012054">10.1145/1012037.1012054</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782">0001-0782</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14331332">14331332</a>. <q>Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with ... Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically.</q></cite>

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<cite id="CITEREFDaintith2009" class="citation cs2">Daintith, John, ed. (2009), "IT", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t83.e1592">A Dictionary of Physics</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199233991</bdi>, retrieved 1 August 2012</cite> (subscription required)

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<ul><li><a href="https://foldoc.org/" class="extiw external" title="foldoc:">FOLDOC: the Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Computer_science1050" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration">Very-large-scale integration</a></li>

<li><a href="System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">System on a chip</a> (SoC)</li>

<li><a href="Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption</a> (green computing)</li>

<li><a href="Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li>

<li><a href="Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li>

<li><a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li>

<li><a href="Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyber-physical_system" title="Cyber-physical system">Cyber-physical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Network protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li>

<li><a href="Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">Control variable</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li>

<li><a href="Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li>

<li><a href="Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_process_control" title="Industrial process control">Process control system</a></li>

<li><a href="Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-centered_computing">Human–centered computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li>

<li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li>

<li>Differentiable computing</li>

<li><a href="Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li>

<li> Glossaries</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-25" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Computing&oldid=1302499763">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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